From Susa to London and Paris: The History of Iran’s Antiquities

Curiosity, Concessions, and the Absence of National Safeguards

In the late nineteenth century, during the Qajar period, Iran found itself at the intersection of European scientific exploration and imperial ambition. France, Britain, and later the United States sent archaeologists and excavation missions into Iranian territory. These expeditions often operated under loosely defined “concessions” granted by the Iranian government or negotiated agreements that permitted foreign teams to excavate and export antiquities. At this time, Iran lacked a comprehensive and enforceable legal framework governing cultural heritage. The notion of archaeological remains as a collective national property had not yet been fully codified in Iranian law, which left the country vulnerable to large-scale removals of antiquities.

It was not until the consolidation of the modern Iranian state under Reza Shah Pahlavi that serious attempts were made to regulate archaeological activity. A milestone was the 1930 Antiquities Law of Iran, which established government oversight of excavations, licensing procedures, and stipulations regarding the division of finds. This law sought to end the era of uncontrolled concessions by creating a legal framework for partage (the division of finds between Iran and foreign missions), while curbing the wholesale export of artifacts that had characterized the Qajar concessions.

France, Britain, and the United States: Beneficiaries of Archaeological Privileges

• France was the most prominent beneficiary of early concessions. In 1895, the French secured an exclusive right to excavate at Susa and other sites. Archaeologists such as Jacques de Morgan conducted large-scale digs, with the majority of finds shipped to Paris. The Louvre Museum thus became a major repository of Iranian antiquities, ranging from prehistoric ceramics to monumental Elamite and Achaemenid inscriptions. These transfers were often justified through formal contracts with the Qajar state but lacked transparent legal frameworks comparable to modern heritage law.
• Britain acquired artifacts through a combination of excavation, purchase, and private collecting. The so-called “Luristan Bronzes”, discovered in western Iran during the early twentieth century, entered international markets in vast numbers. Many pieces were acquired by the British Museum, as well as private collectors, during a period when Iranian enforcement mechanisms were weak or absent.
• The United States, although a later participant, became a significant actor through academic institutions. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago carried out excavations at Persepolis in the 1930s under partage agreements supervised by the Iranian Department of Antiquities. Some relief fragments and architectural elements were shipped to Chicago, where they remain today, though often contested.

Excavation Practices, Transfers, and the Partage System

Early excavations were frequently rushed, with little attention paid to stratigraphy or documentation. Finds were removed rapidly, and context was sometimes irretrievably lost. Following the 1930 Antiquities Law, more emphasis was placed on proper recording, cataloguing, and site mapping. Still, partage remained a central mechanism: typically, finds were divided between Iran and the foreign mission, with particularly significant pieces retained by Iran. However, Iran’s share was often reduced due to limited conservation capacity, diplomatic pressures, or the imbalance of expertise between Iranian authorities and foreign institutions.

Objects were transported via rail and ports, crated and shipped to European capitals or American universities, where they were accessioned into museum collections.

Legal Realities and International Developments

• Before 1930, most concessions operated with minimal oversight, allowing foreign missions to export antiquities with little accountability.
• The 1930 Antiquities Law established formal oversight, but enforcement remained uneven, and Iran continued to lose important artifacts during the early decades of the twentieth century.
• The 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property marked a turning point internationally, by restricting the legal export of cultural property, requiring documentation of provenance, and enabling claims for the restitution of illegally removed artifacts.

Selected Masterpieces and Their Current Locations

To illustrate this trajectory, a few celebrated examples may be highlighted:

1. “Petit chien à bélière” (Golden Dog Pendant, ca. 4000 BCE, Susa)
   A small, exquisitely crafted pendant in the form of a dog, excavated at the Acropolis of Susa. It is among the earliest examples of advanced metalworking in the ancient Near East. Now housed in the Louvre Museum, Paris.
2. Bushel with Ibex Motifs (ca. 4200–3500 BCE, Susa I)
   A large painted ceramic vessel decorated with stylized ibex figures, found in a Susa cemetery. It exemplifies the sophistication of prehistoric Iranian pottery and currently resides in the Louvre Museum.
3. The Luristan Bronzes (early first millennium BCE, western Iran)
   A vast corpus of weapons, horse trappings, and ritual objects. Many entered the art market under unclear circumstances and are today dispersed across institutions including the British Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
4. The Manishtushu Obelisk (ca. 2270 BCE, Susa)
   A monumental inscribed stele detailing land transactions under the Akkadian king Manishtushu, excavated at Susa and now in the Louvre Museum.
5. Persepolis Relief of Lion and Bull (Achaemenid, 5th century BCE)
   Originally part of the grand staircases at Persepolis, this relief symbolized royal ideology and seasonal renewal. It was excavated in the 1930s and sent to the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, where it remained for decades before being reinstalled for public display.

The Value of Antiquities: Beyond Monetary Worth

The significance of these artifacts lies not only in their aesthetic and material value but also in their role as irreplaceable witnesses to the cultural, political, and technological achievements of ancient Iran. They document cross-cultural exchanges, regional innovations, and millennia of craftsmanship. For Iran, they represent a tangible link to national identity and heritage. Their removal abroad has allowed global audiences to encounter Iran’s ancient civilizations but has also sparked enduring debates about cultural ownership, legal legitimacy, and the ethics of collecting.

Conclusion: From Concessions to Contestations

The story of Iran’s antiquities encapsulates a broader history of unequal cultural exchange, shaped by imperial influence, legal ambiguities, and shifting international norms. While early concessions enabled the outflow of priceless treasures, subsequent laws and international agreements have gradually curbed such practices. Today, the debate continues: should artifacts remain in the museums where they have been displayed for over a century, or should they be returned to their land of origin? In either case, the legacy of these concessions highlights the importance of cultural heritage as both a scientific resource and a contested symbol of identity and sovereignty.